from serious incursions due to the threat still posed by neighbouring tribes to their west; by the 4th century BC, they had all either been subdued or conquered, setting the stage for Qin expansionism.

Warring States period, c. 475-230 BC

During the Warring States period (-221 BC), the Qin statesman Shang Yang introduced a series of advantageous military reforms between 359 BC and his execution in 338. He also helped to construct

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