responsibilities may develop a tendency to have panic attacks. Individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) also show a much higher rate of panic disorder than the general population.

A meta-analysis by Zhang and others (2021) identified adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) as risk factors for panic disorder. These ACEs included physical abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, sexual abuse, parental alcoholism, and parental separation and loss. A systematic review and