worsened, with the "turnip winter" of 1916-1917 an example of the emerging severe shortages in Central Europe. The situation at the start of 1917 was such that there was clear pressure on the German leadership to avoid a "war of exhaustion", while the softening of neutral trade reduced the importance to keep the neutral countries on side.

Germany had considered a blockade from 1914. "England wants to starve us", said Grand Admiral