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and spread further through Java and Sumatra over the following centuries. Historians have linked its expansion to maritime trade, the rise of coastal sultanates, and the work of Islamic teachers and missionaries, including the Wali Sanga. In Java, older Javanese cultural forms entered Islamic practice, giving Javanese Islam a style unlike those found in Malaya and Sumatra.

European contact, colonial rule, and independence

European entry into the archipelago began in the early 16th century,

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