due to environmental limitations. The tsetse fly, prevalent during the rainy season, posed a significant obstacle to cattle rearing and limited expansion to the south.

By contrast, the Kobadi tradition, which developed in the mid-2nd millennium BCE, relied primarily on fishing, gathering wild grasses, and hunting, and remained relatively sedentary. Both traditions used copper sourced from Mauritania and maintained interregional exchanges, as evidenced by material culture and stylistic similarities in