particularly in Surat, where mihrabs with finely carved trilobal arches suggest a growing economic relationship with India. The Ndia Kuu Mosque in Mombasa, excavated in 1985, reinforces this external influence. This 17th century mosque, probably used by Indian and Pakistani mercenaries, had a square plan, a small mihrab decorated with Indian-style volutes and blind arcades, and two small pillars flanking the mihrab projection.

The Ribat al-Riyadha Mosque, founded in 1901, was founded by Sufi mystic and scholar Habib Swaleh. Inspired by