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for specimen shape effect calculations. For the curves where end restraint is applied to the specimens, they are assumed to be fully laterally restrained, meaning that the coefficient of friction at the contact points between the specimen and the testing machine is greater than or equal to one (u ? 1). As shown in the graph, as the relative length of the specimen increases (), the ratio of true to engineering stress () approaches the value corresponding to frictionless contact between the specimen and the machine,

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