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According to Vandenbroucke (2004) it was Kish who used the word "confounding" in the sense of "incomparability" of two or more groups (e.g., exposed and unexposed) in an observational study. Formal conditions defining what makes certain groups "comparable" and others "incomparable" were later developed in epidemiology by Greenland and Robins (1986) using the counterfactual language of Neyman (1935) and Rubin

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