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R. The expectation value of the operator is calculated from:

:

This can be generalized to any function F of an operator:

:

An example of F is the 2-fold action of A on ?, i.e. squaring an operator or doing it twice:

:

Hermitian operators

The definition of a Hermitian operator is:

:

Following from this, in bra-ket notation:

:

Important properties of Hermitian operators include:
* real eigenvalues,
*

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