by pulse broadening due to chromatic dispersion among other phenomena.

In general, for a waveguide mode with an angular frequency ?(?) at a propagation constant ? (so that the electromagnetic fields in the propagation direction z oscillate proportional to e^i(?z-?t)), the group-velocity dispersion parameter D is defined as
:

where ? = 2c/? is the vacuum wavelength, and v_g = d?/d? is the group

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