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research, hence the motto on the city's coat of arms: ???????? ????????????, Kolybél´ kosmonávtiki ("The Cradle of Space Exploration").

History

Kaluga, founded in the mid-14th century as a border fortress on the southwestern borders of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, first appears in the historical records in chronicles from the 14th century as Koluga; the name comes from Old Russian kaluga - "bog, quagmire". In the late 14th century,

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