also employs independently and in a different arrangement. The resulting text is considerably longer and more severe than its Markan basis. Scholars noted multiple parallels between the denunciations in Matthew 23 and ancient Jewish practice, arguing that the language reflects a form of rhetorical invective widely used by Jews themselves in inter-party disputes rather than a distinctively anti-Jewish polemic.

Several scholars have argued that multiple parts of the chapter reflect the theology and interests of Matthew's own Jewish Christian