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as mV. In many animal cells, V_m is typically in the order of tens of millivolts. It commonly falls in the range of about -20 mV to -200 mV depending on the cell type and state. For such typical negative membrane potentials, positive work is required to move a positive charge from the interior to the exterior. However, thermal kinetic energy allows ions to overcome the potential difference. For a selectively permeable membrane, this permits

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