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and clarity. Contrasting this, the TCP/IP model, whose origins date back to the 1970s and which became the foundation of the modern Internet, integrates these functions into a broader application layer that handles process-to-process communication. This design emphasizes simplicity and robustness by placing intelligence and complexity on the network's edge rather than the core, enabling nearly any network to interconnect. As a result, the application layer serves as the interface for diverse networking protocols that drive everyday Internet-based

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