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electroactive materials, such as independent scaling of power (determined by the size of the stack) and of energy (determined by the size of the tanks), long cycle and calendar life, and potentially lower total cost of ownership at multi-hour half cycle design times. However, flow batteries suffer from a lower cycle energy efficiency (50-80%). This drawback stems from the need to operate flow batteries at high (>= 100 mA/cm2) current densities to reduce

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