dictated by hereditary family allegiances, now expressed amid a complex wider tangle of religious, regionalist and nationalist affiliations.

From 1948 the French colonists ran experimental palm-date plantations in the red soil around Kiffa, having had great success with date-growing elsewhere in Mauritania, but labor and water shortages caused these to fail by 1952. A small-scale reforestation program, intended to guard against sand dune encroachment, was tried to little effect in the late 1980s.

China has had a healthcare

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