a net flow against the gradient.

Although the entire cell is considered negative inside, the fluids in the cell are electrically neutral. The presence of the voltage is due to the thin layer of charge that accumulates at the surfaces of the cell membrane. The cell membrane is only a few nanometers thick, and as such, even a voltage of 100 mV across this thickness generates an electric field that is extremely strong on the cell membrane.

Description

All animal cells are surrounded by a membrane

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