to produce new and meaningful speech. The second was the ability to act with general adaptability across different situations. Descartes held that animals failed both tests. Their sounds and actions, however complex, were taken to be the products of bodily organisation rather than understanding.

Metaphysical and theological implications

Descartes held that only humans possess immortal, immaterial souls created directly by God. Animals, by contrast, were explained in terms of bodily structure and the movement of animal spirits.

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