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early examples can be found at Chorley, on the Bolton and Preston Railway, built in 1841. These were a series of narrow 25 ft long, strut-like arches between two masonry retaining walls. The retaining walls constrained the side forces such that they could only act axially along the columns; between earth banks, such narrow arches would otherwise have been at risk of collapse from off-axis forces. In 2008 the original stone

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