in terms of specific physical interventions on causal systems. For example, "If Swan had not invented the light bulb" is interpreted as "If we intervened on the physical system to prevent Swan's invention". This approach avoids contradictions by clearly separating the intervened system from background conditions.

Another solution, proposed by Barry Loewer, uses statistical mechanics to ground counterfactuals. This approach defines the truth of counterfactuals based on the most probable evolution of physical microstates consistent with