of organisms (See discussions in Charles, 2011). For Holt, then, behavior is purposive and goal directed, a notion that influenced directly the theorizing of one of Holt's most famous students, Edward C. Tolman, who later emphasized many of Holt's points through his own work on purposive behavior.

After his retirement, Holt moved to Tenants Harbor, Maine, with his long-time male companion, George X. Bernier. Holt came out of retirement and taught