and the Christian religion on what they perceived as backward Asian nations.

By the early 19th century, the Japanese policy of isolation was increasingly under challenge. In 1844, Dutch King William II sent a letter urging Japan to end the isolation policy on its own before change would be forced from the outside. Between 1790 and 1853, at least twenty-seven U.S. ships, including three warships, visited Japan, only to be turned away.

There

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