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sovereigns, only Emperor Frederick II was in a position to regain Jerusalem after the loss. Frederick was, like many of the 13th-century rulers, a serial crucesignatus. When he was formally crowned as King of Germany at Aachen on 15 July 1215, he astonished the crowd by taking the cross and calling upon the nobles present to do the same. Twenty years separated the crusader vows of Emperor Henry VI and his son Frederick and it

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