tribal tenure regulated by local practice and Islamic law.

A formal sanad issued by Nasir Khan I of Kalat in the mid-18th century confirmed the proprietary rights of the Kasi chiefs (arbabs) over the Shal valley, defining its boundaries and affirming their control over land and water resources. Certain Kasi families held hereditary and revenue-free grants, which continued to be recognised under later administrations.

By the early modern period, other Pashtun tribes--including the Achakzai,

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