are active during non-symbolic number tasks in infants and both non-symbolic and more sophisticated symbolic number tasks in adults. These results could suggest that the ANS contributes over time to the development of higher-level numerical skills that activate the same part of the brain.

However, longitudinal studies do not necessarily find that non-symbolic abilities predict later symbolic abilities. Conversely, early symbolic number abilities have been found to predict later non-symbolic abilities, not vice versa as predicted. In