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we measure phenotypes, and the figure also shows how observed phenotypes relate to the gene effects. Formal definitions of these effects recognize this phenotypic focus. Epistasis has been approached statistically as interaction (i.e., inconsistencies), but epigenetics suggests a new approach may be needed.

If 0<d<a, the dominance is regarded as partial or incomplete--while d=a indicates full or classical dominance. Previously, d>a was known as "over-dominance".