to the Indian Territory. They included the legendary Black Seminole leader John Horse, who arrived in the city via the steamboat Swan in 1842.

Civil War, Reconstruction and the Gilded Age (1861-1902)

Pine Bluff was prospering by the outbreak of the Civil War; most of its wealth was based on the commodity crop of cotton. This was cultivated on large plantations by hundreds of thousands of enslaved Africans throughout

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