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plans of action) and those who see it as a collection of empirical phenomena (the things that are done and their outcomes). The first of these conceptualizations is suitable when the matter of concern is relatively simple and unambiguous, and the means of enactment are expected to be highly disciplined. But where the matter is complex and/or contested - where intentions are confused and/or disguised - it may not be possible to define the policy ideas clearly and unambiguously. In this case, it may be useful to identify a policy in terms of what

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