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component with a partial pressure not exceeding 0.1 micropascal (uPa).One oxygen-(O₂)-independent process involves a direct chemical reaction of ferrous iron (Fe²⁺) (commonly present in typical igneous minerals) or metallic iron (Fe) with water (H₂O) to produce ferric iron (Fe³⁺(aq)), which typically leads to hydroxides such as goethite (FeOoOH) under experimental conditions. While this reaction with water (H₂O) is thermodynamically disfavored, it may be sustained nevertheless, by the rapid

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