symbol, and the gross bit rate is R, inclusive of channel coding overhead, the symbol rate can be calculated as:

In that case M = 2^N different symbols are used. In a modem, these may be sinewave tones with unique combinations of amplitude, phase and/or frequency. For example, in a 64QAM modem, M = 64. In a line code, these may be M different voltage levels.

By taking information per pulse N in bit/pulse to be the base-2-logarithm of the number

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